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 "Winter Afternoon"
Inventory #: CC_0667Ai Xuan 1988 Oil on canvas 34" x 22" © The Hef ner Collection lisenced one time use only |
| THE HISTORY OF
TAOISM Russell Kirkland University of Georgia © 2002 A Gentleman’s Methods for Attaining Immortality: Ko Hung’s Pao‑p'u‑tzu A writing often associated with all of the aforementioned southern tradition is the Pao‑p'u‑tzu ["(The Writings of) the Master who Embraces Simplicity"]: the writings of Ko Hung, a 4th-century southerner who claimed to have inherited special spiritual methods from his great-uncle, Ko Hsüan. Ko Hung was intent to demonstrate (a) that such methods could elevate a person to a deathless state, like what the hsien enjoy, and (b) that such a pursuit of immortality was a fitting goal for upstanding gentlemen (i.e., for Confucians). Ko is thus best characterized as a maverick Confucian who sought to integrate various teachings about spiritual practices into the elite culture of his society. But he did not identify himself with the teachings found in the classical Taoist texts, and had no use for the T'ien-shih Taoists. Later Taoists nonetheless claimed him as a significant figure within their heritage. The Great Revelations: Shang-ch’ing and Ling-pao (4th-5th centuries) Common Characteristics: a. Arose in same historical setting (South China), primarily among aristocrats b. Were based upon revelations to chosen individuals from celestial beings c. Venerated texts revealed by those celestial beings d. Transmitted teachings secretly from master to initiant e. Required religious activity to effect the spiritual goal. The Shang-ch’ing Tradition Arose in South among former followers of the "Celestial Master" tradition; flourished into T'ang times. Revealed Texts: (a) scriptures; (b) biographies of the "Perfected Ones"; (c) oral instructions. Doctrine and Praxis: The "Perfected Ones" (chen‑jen—one of Chuang-tzu’s terms for an ideal person) reside (1) in the heavens (one of which is called Shang-ch'ing, "Supreme Clarity"); (2) in underground grottoes; and (3) in the microcosm of the individual. The practitioner's goal is ascent to Perfection, defined as the transcendent state enjoyed by the Perfected Ones. Eschatology: Soon the world as we know it will end, and "the Sage of the Later Age" (hou-sheng) will arrive to save those who are prepared for heavenly ascent. This "messianic" expectation, likely derived from the Han-dynasty prognostic tradition, was not shared by any other form of “aristocratic Taoism.” It endured into early T’ang times, then dissipated. Methods of Self‑Perfection: The characteristic Shang-ch'ing practice was meditative visualization of, and communion with, the Perfected Ones. A rarer and more perilous practice (though said by the chen-jen to be inferior to their meditative practices) was wai-tan, “operative alchemy,” inherited from the older traditions mentioned above. The discipline and spiritual focus involved in the laborious manufacture of an elixir was one method of elevating a practitioner’s spiritual state for eventual ascent. However, ingesting a formula that had been prepared without adequate spiritual and ritual safeguards could result in death without the intended spiritual ascent, so few were allowed to practice alchemy, and all such undertakings were rigorously controlled by knowledgeable masters. Still, anyone desiring to ascend to the heavens necessarily had to forego life on the earthly plane, so wai-tan inherently involved physical death, in the expectation of creating a perfected self that would no longer be mortal. |
